AGV Motor Speed and RPM Selection Guide: 公式, 標準 & 工作範例

AGV Motor Speed and RPM Selection Guide: 公式, 標準 & 工作範例

Selecting the right motor speed for an Automated Guided Vehicle (自動導引車) is not a single-parameter decision. It sits at the intersection of vehicle dynamics, gearbox design, battery constraints, and control-loop bandwidth. Get it wrong and you face either a sluggish robot that cannot meet throughput targets, or an over-speeding motor that overheats, wastes battery, and dies prematurely. This guide walks through the full engineering chain—from the fundamental speed-to-velocity formula through IEC 60034-1 duty cycle classification, NEMA MG1 design types, and manufacturer datasheet interpretation—to give you a repeatable workflow for matching motor RPM to any AGV platform.

Why Motor Speed Defines AGV Performance

Motor rated speed (轉速) directly governs three AGV performance pillars:

Industry data from AGV fleet operators shows that motors consistently running below 50% of rated RPM—common in over-geared designs—experience 20–35% higher energy consumption and 40% shorter bearing life compared to motors operating in their optimal efficiency band [1].

快速解答: Motor RPM Ranges by AGV Payload Class

For engineering teams that need a fast reference before diving into calculations, the table below consolidates field-proven motor RPM ranges across six AGV payload categories. These values assume BLDC or BLDC servo motors paired with single-stage planetary gearboxes (efficiency ≥ 90%) and polyurethane wheels on epoxy floors.

Source: Consolidated from AGV manufacturer specifications [2][3], gear motor supplier data [4], and GreenSky Power’s AGV motor application guide [5].

The Speed–Torque–Gear Ratio Triangle

Every AGV drive design lives within a three-variable trade space. You cannot optimize one without affecting the other two. Understanding this triangle prevents the most common error in motor speed selection: choosing a motor based on speed alone and discovering the torque is inadequate only during prototype testing.

多變的 1: 電機額定轉速 (n_否)

The rated speed is the RPM at which the motor delivers its rated torque continuously without exceeding its thermal class limit. For BLDC motors used in AGVs, this typically falls between 1,500 和 5,000 轉速. The rated speed is not the no-load speed (n₀)—the no-load speed is typically 10–20% higher than the rated speed under load [6].

多變的 2: Gearbox Reduction Ratio (我)

The ratio converts motor shaft speed to wheel shaft speed. A higher ratio reduces output speed but multiplies output torque (minus gearbox efficiency losses). For AGV applications, ratios typically range from 5:1 (light AMR) 到 50:1 (heavy-duty), 和 15:1–25:1 being the most common range for warehouse AMRs [5].

多變的 3: Output Torque at Wheel (時間_wheel)

This is the torque that actually reaches the drive wheel after gearbox reduction: 時間_wheel = T_發動機 × i × η, where η is gearbox efficiency (0.90–0.95 for planetary, 0.60–0.70 for worm gear). The wheel torque must exceed the sum of rolling resistance, gradient resistance, and acceleration inertia torque with a safety margin of 1.3–1.5× [7].

核心公式: Motor RPM to Vehicle Speed

The fundamental equation linking motor speed to AGV linear velocity is:

v = (2 × π × r × n_發動機) ÷ (60 × i)

在哪裡:

• v = AGV travel speed (多發性硬化症)
• r = drive wheel radius (米)
• n_發動機 = motor rotational speed (轉速)
• 我 = gearbox reduction ratio (dimensionless)

Reverse Calculation: Deriving Gear Ratio from Target Speed

In practice, engineers usually know the desired vehicle speed and wheel diameter, then solve for the required gear ratio given a motor’s rated RPM:

i = (2 × π × r × n_發動機) ÷ (60 × v)

For quick estimates, the wheel RPM can be calculated independently:

n_wheel = (v × 60) ÷ (π × D) where D = wheel diameter (米)

然後: i = n_發動機 ÷ n_wheel

Numerical Example

Target: 1.2 m/s travel speed, 200 mm wheel diameter (r = 0.1 米), motor rated at 3,000 轉速.

1. Wheel RPM = (1.2 × 60) ÷ (π × 0.2) = 72 ÷ 0.628 ≈ 114.6 轉速
2. Gear ratio = 3,000 ÷ 114.6 ≈ 26.2
3. Select standard ratio 25:1 或者 30:1 (nearest available)
4. Verify actual speed at 25:1: v = (2π × 0.1 × 3000) ÷ (60 × 25) = 1.256 m/s ✓
5. Verify actual speed at 30:1: v = (2π × 0.1 × 3000) ÷ (60 × 30) = 1.047 多發性硬化症 (slightly below target)

This example illustrates why motor speed selection and gear ratio selection must be performed iteratively—you rarely get an exact match with standard ratios [3][7].

Reading the Speed-Torque Curve: Maxon and Faulhaber Methodology

Motor datasheets from leading manufacturers like 麥克森 和 Faulhaber present speed-torque characteristics as a linear graph. Understanding how to read this graph is essential for verifying that your selected motor speed will deliver the required torque under actual AGV load conditions.

The Speed-Torque Line (Maxon Methodology)

Maxon’s motor selection methodology defines the speed-torque relationship as a straight line from no-load speed (n₀) at zero torque to stall torque (米_H) at zero speed [6]:

n = n₀ - (Δn/ΔM) × M

在哪裡:

• n₀ = k_n × U_Mot (no-load speed = speed constant × applied voltage)
• Δn/ΔM = speed-torque gradient (slope of the line, in RPM per mNm)
• 米 = instantaneous motor torque

Key insight from Maxon: the slope Δn/ΔM is a mechanical constant determined by the motor’s winding geometry and magnetic circuit—it does not change with voltage. Changing the applied voltage shifts the line up or down (parallel translation) but does not change the slope. This means a motor’s “powerfulness” (how much speed it retains under load) is fixed by design, not by the supply voltage [6].

Operating Range Rules (Faulhaber Methodology)

Faulhaber’s DC motor technical documentation recommends that for optimal motor life and efficiency, the operating point should satisfy [8]:

• Required speed n ≥ n₀ / 2 (operate above half the no-load speed)
• Required load torque M ≤ M_H / 2 (operate below half the stall torque)
• For continuous duty: stay within the continuous operation zone defined by the thermal limit curve

For AGV applications, this translates to a practical rule: select a motor whose rated speed is 1.5–2× the speed you actually need at the motor shaft, then use the gearbox ratio to reduce to the target wheel speed. This keeps the motor in its efficient upper-speed zone and leaves torque headroom for acceleration transients [6][8].

Maxon’s 20% Tolerance Rule

When selecting a motor winding for a specific AGV application, Maxon recommends adding a 20% margin to the calculated speed constant to account for tolerances in winding resistance, magnet strength, and load variability [6]:

k_n ≥ 1.2 × (n_{max,必需的} + (Δn/ΔM)_avg × M_max) ÷ U_Mot

This ensures that even with manufacturing tolerances (Maxon publishes ±10% on no-load speed and ±50% on no-load current), the motor will still meet the AGV’s speed requirement under worst-case conditions [9].

Gearbox Ratio Selection by AGV Type

Different AGV architectures demand different speed-torque trade-offs. The table below maps six common AGV types to their recommended motor RPM, 齒輪比, and output characteristics, based on consolidated data from AGV motor manufacturers and system integrators [2][3][5].

Gearbox Efficiency Impact on Effective Speed

The gearbox efficiency directly reduces the output torque (and thus the effective tractive force), but it does not change the output speed. 然而, because the motor must produce more torque to compensate for gearbox losses, the motor’s actual operating speed drops along the speed-torque line. This means a worm gearbox (小時= 0.65) causes the motor to run 10–15% slower than a planetary gearbox (小時= 0.92) at the same load, because the motor must deliver more torque to achieve the same wheel output [7].

國際電工委員會 60034-1: Duty Cycle Classifications for AGV Speed Selection

Motor speed selection cannot be separated from thermal considerations. 國際電工委員會 60034-1:2022 (版 15) defines ten duty cycle classifications (S1–S10) that determine how long a motor can sustain its rated speed and torque without exceeding thermal limits. For AGV applications, three classifications are most relevant [10][11].

S1 — Continuous Duty

The motor runs at constant rated load long enough to reach thermal steady state. This applies to towing AGVs on long-distance transport loops. The rated speed and torque on the motor nameplate are S1 values—selecting a motor based on nameplate ratings is safe only if your AGV operates in S1 mode.

S3 — Intermittent Periodic Duty

The motor cycles between run and stop periods without significant thermal equilibrium. This is the most common AGV duty cycle: pick-up → travel → drop-off → idle → repeat. S3 is expressed as a percentage (例如, S3-40% means the motor is energized 40% of the cycle time). A motor rated for S3-40% can deliver 1.6× its S1 torque during the on-period, but only if the off-period provides sufficient cooling.

S4 — Intermittent Periodic Duty with Starting

Similar to S3 but includes a significant starting (加速度) phase that contributes to heating. This applies to AGVs with frequent start-stop cycles (例如, warehouse AMRs navigating through aisles with obstacle avoidance).

For AGV motor selection, the practical implication is: if your AGV operates in S3 or S4 mode, you can select a motor with a lower S1-rated speed than a pure S1 calculation would suggest, because the intermittent duty allows the motor to run harder during active periods. 然而, you must verify that the RMS (root-mean-square) torque over the full cycle does not exceed the motor’s S1 rated torque [11].

NEMA MG 1: Standard Speed Ratings and Design Types

While AGV motors are typically DC-powered (BLDC 或有刷), many AGV systems in North American facilities also integrate AC induction motors for auxiliary functions (泵, lifts, 輸送機). NEMA MG 1-2021 defines standard speed ratings that engineers should recognize when specifying complete AGV systems [12].

NEMA Standard Speeds at 60 赫茲

The synchronous speed of an AC motor is determined by the formula: 否_s = 120 × f ÷ P, where f = frequency (赫茲) and P = number of poles.

NEMA Design Types and IEC Equivalents

NEMA MG 1 classifies motor designs by their torque-speed characteristics. For AGV auxiliary AC motors, the design type determines starting behavior under load [12][13].

For the primary AGV drive motor (無刷直流電機), NEMA MG 1 design types do not directly apply, but the thermal class and insulation rating standards are shared. Most AGV-grade BLDC motors use F級 (155℃) insulation per IEC 60034-1 / NEMA MG 1, with Class H (180℃) for high-ambient or heavy-duty applications [10][12].

Motor Speed Constants: k_n, K_t, and Speed-Torque Gradient

Three constants define a motor’s speed behavior. Understanding them is essential for interpreting manufacturer datasheets and performing speed calculations that go beyond simple ratio division.

Speed Constant (k_n)

Expressed in RPM per volt (RPM/V). Defines the no-load speed at a given voltage: n₀ = k_n × U. A higher k_n means the motor spins faster at the same voltage but produces less torque per amp. For AGV BLDC motors, k_n values typically range from 50–300 RPM/V (at 24V: 1,200–7,200 RPM no-load) [6].

扭矩常數 (K_t or k_米)

Expressed in Nm/A (or mNm/A for small motors). Defines the torque produced per amp of current: M = K_t × I. Maxon notes that for their motors, torque and current are directly proportional, meaning the current axis on a speed-torque graph can be read as a parallel torque axis. Typical AGV BLDC motor K_t values range from 0.02–0.5 Nm/A [6].

Speed-Torque Gradient (Δn/ΔM)

Expressed in RPM per Nm (or RPM per mNm for small motors). Defines how much speed drops per unit of load torque increase: Δn/ΔM = n₀ ÷ M_H (no-load speed divided by stall torque). A flatter gradient (smaller value) means a more powerful motor that maintains speed under load. Maxon considers this the most meaningful single number for motor comparison, as it is a mechanical constant independent of winding choice [6].

筆記: Maxon publishes ±10% tolerance on no-load speed and ±50% tolerance on no-load current. Always include this tolerance in speed calculations, especially for AGV fleets where multiple motors must track the same speed [9].

Closed-Loop Speed Control: Encoder Resolution and PWM

Selecting the motor’s rated RPM is only half the equation—maintaining that speed precisely under varying load requires closed-loop control. AGV systems use encoder feedback to achieve speed regulation accuracy of ±0.5% to ±1.0% for standard industrial AGVs, and ±0.1% for high-precision positioning AGVs [3].

Encoder Resolution Impact on Speed Control

The encoder’s pulses per revolution (PPR) determines the minimum speed increment the controller can resolve:

Speed resolution = 60 ÷ (PPR × T_sample) (轉速)

Where T_sample is the control loop sampling period in seconds. 在 5 ms loop time (200 Hz update rate, typical for AGV motor controllers):

PWM Frequency and Speed Ripple

The servo drive’s PWM switching frequency affects speed smoothness at the motor shaft. Typical AGV BLDC controllers use 16–20 kHz PWM, which is above the audible threshold and provides smooth current regulation. At lower PWM frequencies (8–10 kHz), speed ripple increases, causing visible wheel jitter at low speeds—an issue for AGVs performing precision docking [3].

Yaskawa Servo Speed Control Architecture

Yaskawa’s Sigma-5 and Sigma-X servo systems, widely used in industrial automation, illustrate best-in-class speed control architecture for AGV-class applications. The Sigma-5 series supports maximum speeds of 6,000 轉速 (low-inertia) 和 3,000 轉速 (medium-inertia) with 20-bit (1,044,576 counts/rev) encoder resolution. The speed control loop typically operates at 62.5 μs (16 千赫), enabling ±0.01% speed regulation—well beyond AGV requirements but illustrative of what closed-loop servo architecture achieves [14][15].

Voltage Platform and Its Impact on Speed Range

AGV battery voltage directly constrains the motor’s achievable speed through the speed constant relationship (n₀ = k_n × U). Lower-voltage systems limit the maximum no-load speed, which in turn limits the available speed headroom for gear ratio optimization.

A critical design note: never operate a motor significantly below its rated voltage. A 48V-rated motor running on a 24V bus will only reach half its rated no-load speed, pushing the operating point into the low-efficiency zone and potentially causing thermal issues due to high current draw [3].

Worked Example 1: 500 kg Warehouse AMR

Design Requirements

• Total mass (vehicle + payload): 500 公斤
• Target travel speed: 1.5 多發性硬化症
• Wheel diameter: 200 毫米 (r = 0.1 米)
• Maximum gradient: 3% (1.7°)
• Acceleration target: 0.5 m/s²
• 電池: 48直流電壓
• 工作週期: S3-40% (warehouse pick-and-place)

Step-by-Step Speed Selection

結果: Select a 48V BLDC servo motor rated at 3,000 RPM with ≥ 3.3 Nm continuous rated torque, paired with a 20:1 single-stage planetary gearbox (η ≥ 92%, backlash ≤ 10 arc-min). This configuration delivers 1.57 m/s top speed with adequate torque margin for 3% gradients and 0.5 m/s² acceleration under 500 kg total mass [5][7].

Worked Example 2: 2,000 kg Forklift AGV

Design Requirements

• Total mass: 2,000 公斤
• Target travel speed: 0.8 多發性硬化症
• Wheel diameter: 300 毫米 (r = 0.15 米)
• Maximum gradient: 5% (2.9°)
• Acceleration target: 0.3 m/s²
• 電池: 72直流電壓
• 工作週期: S4 (frequent start-stop with lifting)

Step-by-Step Speed Selection

結果: Dual 72V BLDC servo motors, 2,500 轉速, ≥ 4.8 Nm rated torque each, 和 50:1 2-階段行星齒輪箱 (η ≥ 88%), delivering 0.79 m/s top speed and 1,875 N peak tractive force for 2,000 kg forklift AGV on 5% gradients. The S4 duty cycle requires Class F insulation and integrated thermal sensors [7][10].

Common Speed Selection Mistakes

7-Step Motor Speed Selection Workflow

Based on the engineering principles, 標準, and manufacturer methodologies covered above, the following workflow provides a repeatable process for AGV motor speed selection:

Academic Research on AGV Motor Speed Optimization

Several peer-reviewed IEEE papers have addressed motor speed optimization for AGV and mobile robot platforms:

• Energy-optimal speed profiles — Jaramillo-Morales et al. (2020) demonstrated that optimized speed profiles for differential-drive mobile robots can achieve significant energy savings compared to trapezoidal profiles, by operating motors closer to their peak efficiency RPM during acceleration phases [16].
• BLDC motor speed control for self-driving robots — Bae et al. (2020) presented sensorless speed estimation for in-wheel BLDC motors, showing improved low-speed control performance by compensating for Hall sensor lag—a relevant finding for AGVs operating at low wheel RPM [17].
• Dual-PM motor design for AGV — Lin et al. (2020) proposed a novel direct-drive dual-PM motor specifically designed for electric AGVs, achieving high efficiency across a wide speed range by reducing torque ripple through split-tooth stator design [18].
• Fuzzy speed control — Kodagoda et al. (2002, cited 250+ 次) developed fuzzy PD-PI controllers for AGV speed and steering, demonstrating that intelligent control can decouple speed from steering and maintain stable speed under varying load—a foundational result for AGV speed regulation [19].
• Intelligent speed controllers comparison — Khan et al. (2025) compared PID, FLC, ANFIS, and MPC controllers for DC motor speed regulation in wheeled autonomous robots, providing quantitative guidance on controller selection for different speed-regulation requirements [20].

These studies collectively reinforce the principle that motor speed selection is not just a mechanical ratio calculation but must be coupled with control architecture design to achieve the speed regulation precision that AGV navigation systems demand.

常問問題: AGV Motor Speed and RPM Selection

What is the typical RPM range for AGV motors?

AGV motors typically operate in the 1,500–5,000 RPM rated speed range, with 2,500–3,500 RPM being the most common for warehouse AMRs and logistics AGVs (500–1,200 kg payload). Light AMRs (≤100 kg) may use motors up to 5,000 轉速, while heavy-duty AGVs (3,000+ 公斤) typically use 1,500–2,500 RPM motors with high gear ratios (15:1–30:1) [2][5].

How do I calculate the gear ratio from motor RPM to wheel speed?

The formula is: 齒輪比 (我) = motor RPM ÷ wheel RPM. Wheel RPM = (target speed in m/s × 60) ÷ (π × wheel diameter in meters). 例如, A 3,000 RPM motor with a 200 mm wheel at 1.5 m/s target speed: wheel RPM = (1.5 × 60) ÷ (π × 0.2) = 143 轉速; ratio = 3,000 ÷ 143 ≈ 21:1 [3][7].

Should I use no-load speed or rated speed for gear ratio calculation?

Always use the 額定速度 (speed at rated torque), not the no-load speed. DC and BLDC motors run 10–20% slower under load than at no load. Using no-load speed will produce a ratio that delivers 10–20% less output speed than intended under actual AGV load conditions [4][6].

What happens if my motor runs too slowly for the application?

If the motor operates far below its rated RPM (以下 50% of rated), it enters a low-efficiency zone where: (1) energy consumption increases 15–35%, (2) 冷卻風扇 (if shaft-mounted) provide insufficient airflow, (3) current draw increases to maintain torque, accelerating thermal aging, 和 (4) battery runtime decreases proportionally [1][6].

How does IEC 60034-1 duty cycle classification affect motor speed selection?

國際電工委員會 60034-1 defines duty cycles S1–S10. For AGVs operating in S3 (intermittent) or S4 (intermittent with starting) 模式, the motor can deliver 1.3–1.6× its S1-rated torque during active periods. This means you can select a motor with a lower S1-rated speed than a pure continuous-duty calculation would suggest—provided the RMS torque over the full cycle does not exceed the motor’s S1 rating [10][11].

Can I use a 48V motor on a 24V AGV battery?

不推薦. A 48V motor on 24V will only reach approximately half its rated no-load speed, pushing the operating point into the low-efficiency zone. The motor will draw higher current to produce the same torque, increasing thermal load and reducing bearing life. Always match the motor’s rated voltage to the battery bus voltage [3].

Need a Custom AGV Motor Solution?

Selecting the right motor speed for your AGV platform requires balancing kinematics, 熱管理, gearbox efficiency, 和控制架構. GreenSky Power manufactures 無刷直流電機, 行星齒輪箱, 和 custom electric motor solutions specifically optimized for AGV and AMR drive systems. Our engineering team can help you calculate the optimal motor RPM, 齒輪比, and voltage platform for your specific payload, 速度, and duty cycle requirements. 聯繫我們 for a technical consultation or request a product specification sheet for your AGV motor project.

For more AGV motor engineering resources, see our related guides:

• 如何為 AGV 應用選擇電機: 完整的選擇指南
• Motor for AGV: Complete Selection Guide — Types, Torque Calculation & 規格
• AGV馬達扭矩計算指南: 公式, 工作範例 & 馬達選型
• AGV需要多少扭矩? 具有工程標準的基於有效負載的答案
• AGV 與 AMR: Navigation, Flexibility, 安全, 成本 & 馬達選型
• AGV 的 BLDC 與伺服電機: 力矩, 精確, 成本——選擇哪一個?
• 正齒輪馬達與行星齒輪電機: 哪一款適合您的項目?
• 直驅馬達與齒輪馬達: 力矩, 效率, Precision — Which to Choose?
• 伺服馬達與步進電機: 力矩, 速度, 準確性 & Cost — How to Choose
• BLDC 馬達與伺服電機: Key Differences and Selection Guide
• Motor Controller Selection Guide for AGV and AMR Applications
• 馬達測試標準: 國際電工委員會, 沒有, and Best Practices

參考

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3. HKT Robot (AGVMotor.com). “Brushless Servo Motor for AGV: Key Specs and Selection Guide.” Available at: https://agvmotor.com/blogs/knowledge/brushless-servo-motor-for-agv
4. SY Motor. “How to Select the Right Gear Reduction Ratio: A Practical Guide for Engineers and Procurement Teams.” Available at: https://www.symotor-hz.com/news/industry-news/how-to-select-the-right-gear-reduction-ratio-a-practical.html
5. GreenSky Power. “如何為 AGV 應用選擇電機: Complete Selection Guide.” Available at: https://greensky-power.com/how-to-choose-a-motor-for-agv-applications/
6. Maxon Precision Motors. “Motor Type Selection.” Published via A3 Association for Advancing Automation. Available at: https://www.automate.org/tech-papers/motor-type-selection
7. Bicontrols (YK-Control). “AGV行走系统动力学计算与驱动选型指南:从整车阻力到舵轮、电机及驱动器匹配.” Available at: https://www.bicontrols.com/news_detail/73.html
8. Faulhaber Drive Systems. “計算 & Formulas for Brush DC Motors” (White Paper). Available via Qmed at: https://qmed.com/when-selecting-a-brush-dc-motor-for-an-file104689.html
9. 麥克森集團. “Motor Data and Simulation — Standard Tolerances.” Available at: https://support.maxongroup.com/hc/en-us/articles/360013761160-Motor-data-and-simulation
10. 國際電工委員會. 國際電工委員會 60034-1:2022 — Rotating electrical machines — Part 1: Rating and performance (版 15). Geneva: 國際電工委員會.
11. HYX Geological Equipment. “Low-Speed Motor Parameter Encyclopedia: Comprehensive Technical Guide for Industrial Selection.” Available at: http://www.hyxgeo.com/article/179424572649472.html
12. 全國電氣製造商協會. NEMA MG 1-2021 — Motors and Generators. Rosslyn, VA: 沒有.
13. The Engineering Toolbox. “Electric Motors — IEC and NEMA Standard Torques.” Available at: https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/iec-nema-standards-torques-d_741.html
14. Yaskawa Electric Corporation. “Sigma-5 Servo Family — Product Catalog.” Available at: https://www.yaskawa.com/delegate/getAttachment?documentId=BL.Sigma-5.01
15. Yaskawa Electric Corporation. “Sigma-X Rotary Servomotors — Product Specifications.” Available at: https://yaskawa.co.uk/motion-control/sigma-x/sx-rotary-servomotors
16. Jaramillo-Morales, M.F., Dogru, S., & Marques, l. (2020). “Generation of energy optimal speed profiles for a differential drive mobile robot with payload on straight trajectories.” 2020 IEEE International Symposium on Safety, 安全, and Rescue Robotics (SSRR), 136–141. DOI: 10.1109/SSRR50563.2020
17. Bae, J., Lee, D.-H., & Cho, K. (2020). “Speed and Direction Control of Two In-wheel BLDC Motors for the Self-Driving Surveillance Robot.” 2020 IEEE International Conference on Mechatronics and Robotics Engineering (ICMRE). DOI: 10.1109/icmre49073.2020.9065011
18. Lin, Q., Niu, S., Cai, F., Fu, W., & Shang, l. (2020). “Design and Optimization of a Novel Dual-PM Machine for Electric Vehicle Applications.” IEEE 車輛技術彙刊, 69(12), 14391–14400. DOI: 10.1109/TVT.2020.3034573
19. Kodagoda, K.R.S., Wijesoma, W.S., & Teoh, E.K. (2002). “Fuzzy speed and steering control of an AGV.” IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology, 10(1), 112–120. DOI: 10.1109/87.974981
20. Khan, H., Namazi, H., & Lenort, 右. (2025). “Advanced Intelligent Controllers Design and Simulation Analysis for Optimizing Speed Control of Autonomous Systems.” IEEEX. Available at: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/11370730